A Systematic Literature Review of Servant Leadership Theory in Organizational Contexts

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Use Respons Rights J. 2021 Sep 28 : 1–23.

Retainer Leadership: a Systematic Literature Review and Network Analysis

Alice Canavesi

^oneBusiness Economics, Carlo Cattaneo University (LIUC), Castellanza, Italia

Eliana Minelli

¹Business organization Economics, Carlo Cattaneo Academy (LIUC), Castellanza, Italia

ⁱⁱGhent University, Ghent, Belgium

Abstract

Servant leadership is a form of moral-based leadership where leaders tend to prioritize the fulfillment of the needs of followers, namely employees, customers and other stakeholders, rather than satisfying their personal needs. Although the concept is not new among both academics and practitioners, information technology has received growing consideration in the terminal decade, due to the fact that it can positively bear on a serial of individual and organizational outcomes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In particular, the latest trend in literature has focused on the identification of the antecedents, mediating and moderating mechanisms at the ground of this relationship, equally well equally on the development of a common scale to measure out the construct beyond diverse economic and cultural contexts. The purpose of this newspaper is to describe the evolution of the scientific literature that has adult on the concept, to identify the main criticalities and provide avenues for future research. A dynamic methodology chosen "Systematic Literature Network Analysis" has been applied, combining the Systematic Literature Review approach with the assay of bibliographic networks.

Keywords: Servant leadership, Systematic literature review, Bibliographic network assay, SNLA

Introduction

With the beginning of the twenty-starting time century, the moral nature of leaders has started to be considered non simply necessary for the proficient of society just also essential for sustainable organizational success (Freeman et al., 2004; Gulati et al., 2010; Padilla et al., 2007), thus marking a considerable shift in research. Equally a effect, moral leadership theories, such every bit transformational, ethical, authentic and retainer leadership, have recently received considerable attending from the scientific community.

Servant leadership seems to be the most promising and most investigated over the final few years, particularly due to the holistic approach and wide focus adopted compared to the other philosophies, besides as to its important role in affecting individual and squad-level outcomes, such as organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviour, chore performance and job satisfaction. Like most other leadership constructs, the definition and measurement of retainer leadership were primarily developed in the United States. In particular, the term retainer leadership was coined by Greenleaf in 1970 in his essay "The Servant as Leader" to describe an emerging style of leadership where leaders focused on followers' personal growth and development, by treating them in an ethical way. The author asserted that the servant leader is "primus inter pares" or "starting time among equals", meaning that his/her highest priority is service to others in gild to fulfill their needs, rather than fulfilling his or her personal needs. Greenleaf'southward conception was then refined past many other scholars, such equally Ehrhart (2004), who claimed that servant leadership is one in which the leader goes beyond the fiscal success of the organization recognizing his or her moral responsibleness towards subordinates, customers and the entire company's community. The emphasis of the servant leadership philosophy has been placed over time on serving and creating value for multiple stakeholders, both internal and external to the arrangement. Liden et al. (2008) further stressed the primal leadership behaviours of servant leadership, such as behaving ethically, helping followers grow and succeed, empowering, emotional healing, conceptual skills and creating value for the community.

Research on servant leadership can be categorized into 3 principal phases: a showtime phase focusing on its conceptual development, a second phase investigating the measures and testing the relationships with some fundamental outcomes via cantankerous-sectional research, and a 3rd phase aimed at understanding the antecedents, mediating mechanisms and purlieus atmospheric condition of retainer leadership. The last "model development phase" is the most recent and has seen a proliferation of studies in the terminal 20 years. A meaning contribution to provide an integrative theoretical framework has been recently made by Eva et al. (2019), who offered a clear conceptual distinction of retainer leadership compared to other approaches, evaluated and assessed the most rigorous scales of the construct adult and then far, and highlighted the about important antecedents, outcomes, moderating and mediating mechanisms identified in the literature.

The purpose of this inquiry is to provide a further and complementary review of the literature on servant leadership through bibliometric methods, in order to assess the evolution of the field over time as well every bit the current state-of-fine art on the key trends and provide avenues for future research. In particular, the authors aim to place:

• The structure of the field, the most consolidated research and its temporal and geographical evolution

• The near recurring theoretical underpinning and constructs

• The well-nigh cited articles representing milestones of the literature

• The most impactful authors and journals

• The disciplines and subject areas involved past the topic

• Research implications

• Future inquiry directions

The structure of the paper is as follows. In the showtime section, the methodology adopted for the literature review and the steps taken in developing the research are presented. In the 2nd section, the results of three different analyses are explained: namely, the paper citation network consisting in the connected components and the principal path, the keywords analysis, and finally the global analysis with the bones statistics. In the 3rd and last section, the main conclusions are drawn and questions to be addressed by future enquiry are provided.

Methods

The paper is based on a two-step method, referred to equally "Systematic Literature Network Analysis (SLNA)" (Colicchia & Strozzi, 2012): a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) and a further analysis of the subset of relevant articles obtained through a bibliographic Network Analysis (NA): namely, the citation network analysis, the co-occurrence networks analysis and the basic statistics. The first qualitative assessment is mainly based on the researchers' judgements as to the pick of keywords and leverages on an explanatory arroyo; while the bibliometric assessment provides more objective insights through quantitative and statistical evidence (Aliyev et al., 2018). In particular, bibliographic data analysed through bibliometric methods include the most impactful writer names, journal titles, article titles, article keywords and article publication years (Block & Fisch, 2020). The aim is to "complement the traditional content-based literature reviews by extracting quantitative information from bibliographic networks and find emerging topics, thus revealing the dynamic development of the scientific production of a bailiwick" (Strozzi et al., 2017). This dynamic assay has proven to exist effective in different research fields, equally it highlights the literature development, identifies authors network and topic clusters, examines gaps and criticalities as well as presents further research directions. In contrast to narrative literature reviews, which aim to summarize the content of the studies of a item enquiry field, SLNA focuses on assessing the conceptual structure of the field and its evolution over fourth dimension (east.g. how has the number of studies evolved, how have the topics evolved, how have the outlets evolved, etc.). It goes beyond a mere descriptive summary of prior literature, by leading a give-and-take of what we know and where we tin can get, and allows the measurement of the knowledge diffusion within and between disciplines, by identifying interdisciplinary links. Moreover, compared to traditional methods which lack a clear methodological approach, quantitative bibliographic studies make it possible to avoid the researchers' selection bias by selecting articulate keywords and exclusion / inclusion criteria and by adopting articulate boundaries at every phase to ensure a systematic search of papers (Fetscherin & Heinrich, 2015; Cake & Fisch, 2020), to the point that the procedure tin be replicated at any fourth dimension. Lastly, SLNA is characterized by a more upward-to-date and broader scope (with regards, for instance, to the journals and publication years considered), thus minimizing the risk of producing an over-reflective and biased argument by the authors but rather leading to prove-based conclusions.

Figure1 clarifies all the steps of the methodology.

Systematic Literature Network Assay (SLNA)

The reference database chosen for the development of the inquiry was Scopus, due to its coverage, convenience, and in alignment with the current literature. According to Falagas et al. (2017) as well every bit to Block and Fisch (2020), Scopus includes a more expanded spectrum of journals and a faster and broader commendation analysis compared to other enquiry databases, such as Web of Scientific discipline (WoS). This result has been confirmed by Chadegani et al. (2013), who assessed that Scopus covers a superior number of journals compared to WoS, fifty-fifty though information technology is limited to more recent manufactures, and by Bergman (2012), who demonstrated that Scopus also provides higher citation counts than Google Scholar and WoS. Moreover, compared to these two other databases, Adriaanse and Rensleigh (2013) proved that Scopus delivers the least inconsistencies regarding content verification and quality, such as author spelling and sequence, volume and issue number.

The cardinal search criteria and terminal query were defined on the footing of the keywords used by scholars to address the concept of retainer leadership, co-ordinate to one reference paper among the main pillars of the literature: "Servant leadership: a systematic review and phone call for futurity research" (Eva et al., 2019) from which this newspaper mainly differs due to its quantitative citation-based methodology. The virtually mutual keywords in literature, as well employed in this study, consist of: servant leadership, servant leader, service leadership, servant behaviour and servant organization. In order to develop a more comprehensive definition and consequently to obtain a more than comprehensive sample on the topic, the search criteria were loosened to "servant leader*" OR "service leader*" to include both "retainer leadership" and "servant leader(s)" OR "service leadership" and "service leader(s)". Besides, considering the different spelling betwixt British English and American English, both terms "behaviour" and "behaviour" were included. As the literature on leadership is very broad, the terms above were limited to 3 streams of search in the department "Commodity title" to include just manufactures that were strictly related and focused on the topic, and non dealing with it in a marginal manner, but also to obtain a moderate number of papers to carry the assay. This systematic literature review is near suitable when the number of papers is not too limited nor as well large. The authors tried to comport a broader search stream also including keywords and abstracts, but it resulted non applicable: it provided several k results and the content of papers obtained was in most cases out of scope. Since the focus of the inquiry was servant leadership from a human resources and organizational perspective, areas were investigated individually to assess whether they were pertinent or non with the topic. On the footing of this analysis, it was possible to include: Business, Social sciences, Economics, Econometrics and Finance, Psychology, Arts and Humanities, Determination sciences, Ecology science and Multidisciplinary. Papers written in languages other than English were excluded. With regards to the fourth dimension span, the twelvemonth in which the study was conducted (2020) was eliminated in guild to consider only papers of ended years. Finally, the search was express to articles and briefing papers, equally they comprise very clear citations and make information technology possible to achieve ideal results. Come across Tabular array ​ 1 for the last specification of the query.

Table 1

Query last specification

Key term	Research blazon	Subject restrictions LIMIT TO SUBJAREA	Language restrictions LIMIT TO LANGUAGE	Time restriction EXCLUDE YEAR	Document blazon LIMIT TO
- "servant leader*" OR "service leader*" OR	Championship	Business organisation ("BUSI) Social Sciences ("SOCI")	English	2020	Commodity, Conference paper
-"servant organization* OR	TITLE	Economic science, Econometrics and Finance ("ECON")
-"servant behavior*" OR "servant behaviour*"	TITLE	Psychology ("PSYC") Arts and Humanities ("ARTS") Determination sciences ("DECI") Environmental science ("ENVI") Multidisciplinary ("MULT")

This process immune united states of america to obtain a subset of 357 papers published between 1984 and 2019, which were then analysed using VOSViewer (Van Eck et al., 2010; Waltman et al., 2010) and Pajek software (de Nooy et al., 2011) to place the main citation path emerging from the commendation network and besides key concepts and trends emerging from the co-occurrence network. After, the basic statistics of the whole subset of papers were examined in guild to provide some general insights: the temporal and geographical evolution of the literature, the subject areas involved, the ranking of the 10 well-nigh cited papers and the most influential authors and journals. The findings of these analyses are reported in the following sections.

Results

Commendation Network Analysis

The initial procedure of the network analysis was aimed at identifying the chief commodity clusters emerging from the citation network past using the VOS Clustering analysis (Van Eck et al., 2010; Waltman et al., 2010). "A commendation network is a network where the nodes are papers and the links are citations. The arrows get from cited to citing papers representing the menstruum of knowledge." (Strozzi et al., 2017). For the identification of the connected component, the minimum threshold of 0 was maintained in order not to exclude recent papers and less relevant authors. The largest continued component (a set of nodes connected past links) consisted of 291 items connected to each other, with 85 different clusters. No other significant continued components emerged from the literature. Figure2 presents the network obtained with VOSviewer, where nodes are weighted by the citations and coloured with both a cluster and yr overlay.

Citation network analysis (size = citation, color = cluster)

The following procedure of the network analysis consisted in implementing the key route algorithm (master path) of the network, using Pajek: a program providing powerful visualization tools. The objective was to identify the nodes that cite or have been cited the most, thus representing the most consolidated enquiry in the field. This was possible by conducting the betweenness axis analysis of a vertex, which is "the proportion of all geodesics between pairs of other vertices that include this vertex" (de Nooy et al., 2011, p. 131). The betweenness centrality analysis allows to focus on the importance of a node in the communication between whatsoever node pair in the network, to identify those playing a central role in information flows and being responsible for the system vulnerability (i.e. vertexes lying on many of the shortest paths between other vertexes). Figurethree shows the flow of knowledge over time, with the network of the 25 essential articles, intensively cited and referring to other papers, labelled past Pajek with the name of the showtime writer and the twelvemonth of publication. It is clear how the research structure has changed over fourth dimension: from 1996 to 2012 it developed linearly, while from 2012 on information technology has started to articulate towards different directions often interconnected to each other. 1 possible estimation of this design is the following: originally, the novelty of the subject led to a direct evolution of the field over fourth dimension, later, once the topic gained ground and unlike inquiry trends emerged, referencing papers and literature reviews started to come out.

Main path of articles from citation network

Based on the previous analysis, the most relevant papers were studied not just to identify the fundamental concepts expressed past the single paper only most chiefly to understand the evolution of the field over fourth dimension. The assay of the main path immune for pinpointing trends and variations that would not be very visible in the general ready of papers. The main findings, which are the result of a quantitative analysis and have not been selected by the authors co-ordinate to a discretionary criterion, are reported in the following department with the aim of depicting a landscape of the scientific literature on the concept of servant leadership.

Main Path Analysis

The virtually recent paper dealing with servant leadership is the one by Yang et al. (2019), which builds on cocky-determination theory to investigate, through an empirical report conducted in the Chinese cyberbanking sector, how retainer leadership affects employee creativity. The authors used a survey based on five-point Likert scales to appraise that in that location is a positive relationship between retainer leadership and employee creativity, mediated past follower psychological empowerment and moderated past work-family unit conflict. This paper can be considered every bit a pillar of the literature as it gathers the contributions of several articles, including a paper past the aforementioned author written 2 years earlier. Yang et al. (2017) previously provided evidence on other mechanisms influencing the relationship between retainer leadership and creativity both at the individual and team level: employees' efficacy beliefs, as a mediator, and team power distance, equally a moderator. With regards to work-family residuum, a similar study conducted by Tang et al. (2016) demonstrated that servant leadership is negatively related to employees' work-to-family conflict (WFC) and positively related to work-to-family positive spillovers (WFPS), with the moderator role of reduced emotional exhaustion in both relationships and the mediator part of enhanced personal learning in the relationship betwixt servant leadership and WFPS. Hoch et al. (2018) compared servant leadership and other moral-based forms of leadership (authentic leadership and upstanding leadership) with transformational leadership, to assess whether they were able to explicate incremental variance with respect to a series of relevant organizational outcomes. Retainer leadership emerged as the merely positive leadership style adding incremental variance to that explained by transformational leadership, thus being of significant utility. Previously, Van Dierendonck et al. (2014) leveraged on ii experimental studies and ane field study to differentiate servant leadership from transformational leadership in the way they affect organizational delivery and work engagement, as the former is mediated by follower need satisfaction while the latter by perceived leadership effectiveness. Hsiao et al. (2015) systematically integrated the three levels of arrangement, employee and client to demonstrate that leaders displaying servant behaviours stimulate customer value co-creation (CVC) with the key mediating roles of positive psychological capital (PPC) and service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs). Newman et al. (2017) found that at the ground of the link between servant leadership and followers' OCBs, in that location are as well the mediating mechanism of leader-fellow member exchange (LMX) and the moderating mechanism of leader proactive personality. Chiniara and Bentein (2016) previously provided other mediating mechanisms between retainer leadership and individual operation outcomes such every bit OCBs and task performance: namely the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs of employees (autonomy, competence and relatedness). Ozyilmaz and Cicek (2015) tested the positive furnishings of retainer leadership on OCBs and on job satisfaction, assessing that this second relationship is partially mediated by psychological climate. Hunter et al. (2013) further investigated both the direct furnishings generated by retainer leaders at the individual level, such as decreased turnover intentions and disengagement, and the indirect furnishings generated at the squad level, such equally decreased turnover intentions, helping and sales behaviour through the mediation of service climate. Moreover, they investigated the basis for individuals enacting this fashion of leadership and found that leader conjuration represents a positive ancestor of retainer leadership, while extraversion a negative i. Executive characteristics of servant leaders were besides tested past Peterson et al. (2012), who assessed that narcissism is negatively related to servant leadership while founder condition (i.east. founder or non-founder) is positively related to servant leadership; both effects are partially mediated past the main executive officer identification in the organisation. Sun (2013) further concentrated on the identity of retainer leaders, past explaining the psychological factors, both cognitive and behavioural, that plant it. Neubert et al. (2016) tested servant leadership effects in hospitals, accumulating bear witness that there is a positive human relationship with both nurse and patient satisfaction, moderated by organizational construction. Similarly, Chen et al. (2015) explored how managers' servant leadership touch the operation of frontline service employees', such every bit hairdressers, through the partial mediation of self-efficacy and group identification. In relation to these operation behaviours, they as well establish that servant leadership explains additional variance in a higher place and beyond transformational leadership. Liden et al. (2014) developed a model to test servant leadership in restaurants and stores. Specifically, they demonstrated that servant leaders propagate servant leadership behaviours among employees, such equally increased job functioning, creativity and customer service behaviours as well as decreased turnover intentions, by establishing a serving culture at the unit of measurement level (e.chiliad. store) and fostering employee identification with the unit. Liden et al. (2015) contributed to the literature by providing the shortest-to-engagement seven-particular scale (SL-7) measure out of global servant leadership, starting from a previous 28-particular scale (SL-28) developed in 2008, and tested it across three empirical independent studies. Besides the topic of employee inventiveness already investigated in literature, Yoshida et al. (2014) ascertained the effects of servant leadership on individual relational identification and commonage prototypicality, which, in turn, fosters team innovation. Antecedents of servant leadership discussed higher up have been examined by other scholars, such equally Hu and Liden (2011), who identified team-level goal, process clarity and squad servant leadership as three mechanisms affecting team say-so, operation and organizational citizenship behaviour. The authors also emphasized the role of servant leaders in moderating the link between team-level goal and process clarity with team authorisation. Similar outcomes were plant a yr earlier by Walumbwa et al. (2010), whose analyses revealed that the relationship between servant leadership and OCBs is partially mediated by commitment to the supervisor, cocky-efficacy, procedural justice climate and service climate. Hale and Fields (2007) leveraged on 3 servant leadership dimensions introduced by Greenleaf (1977), namely service, humility and vision, to point out cultural differences affecting the fashion servant leadership is perceived in dissimilar countries. Specifically, they found that countries with a higher level of power altitude and collectivism experience servant leadership behaviours less ofttimes. They likewise assessed that, when not bad value is placed on uncertainty avoidance, vision has a significant stronger relationship with leadership effectiveness. Previously, Dennis and Bocarnea (2005) developed and tested a scale aimed at measuring 5 out of the vii servant leadership constructs based on Patterson's theory: agapao love (which means to love in a social or moral way), humanity, vision, trust and empowerment. This theoretical development was drawn on a literature review past Russell (2001), who provided an overview of the current individual and organizational values associated with retainer leadership, deepening their role in three main attributes: trust, appreciation of others and empowerment. A sequential, upward-spiralling model based on the variables of vision, influence, credibility, trust and service was formerly adult by Farling et al. (1999) to explain how these variables chronicle i to another in defining the concept at the basis of retainer leadership. This paper represented an development of two sometime analyses. The offset one consists in a retainer leadership model developed by Buchen (1998) within the context of higher didactics and based on v chief dimensions: identity (the direction of ego and image), empowering (the sharing of power with collaborators), reciprocity (a relationship of mutual dependency between leaders and followers), delivery (the accented devotion to academic discipline) and finally future (the alignment betwixt kinesthesia and institution). The second is a reflection newspaper on Greenleaf's definition of servant leadership past Spears (1996), which, on the one hand, emphasizes the primary goal of serving the greater needs of others and, on the other hand, draws the evolution of the topic from its genesis (1970) to the current time (2019).

At first, from the mid 1990's to the tardily 2000's, research was mainly qualitative and moved towards the evolution of a theoretical framework of servant leadership, as well as of diverse scales aimed at measuring the main dimensions of the construct. The last stream of research from 2010 to 2020, instead, suggests the authors' orientation for a quantitative approach based on surveys, experimental and field studies to investigate the antecedents, mediating mechanisms and boundary conditions of servant leadership. Recently, some qualitative studies have emerged again on the topic; still, very few scholars are taking advantage of mixed methods combining the quantitative and qualitative approach.

From a theoretical perspective, the attempt of the present paper was also that of identifying meaningful constructs, underpinnings and framework used in the nearly consolidated literature on servant leadership, even if non explicitly mentioned by single studies. All papers, except 1, were built on the basis of the servant leadership theory, frequently in combination with theories on other leadership styles, such as transformational, or on antecedents, outcomes, mediators and moderators of retainer leadership, such equally LMX theory. Moreover, the majority of paper explicitly employed more than one theoretical ground. The nearly recurring theory (6 out of 25 papers) was the social exchange theory, which was divers past Blau (1964) equally "voluntary deportment of individuals that are motivated by the returns they are expected to bring and typically practise in fact bring from others" (p. 91) and is based on the central premise that the commutation of social and material resource is a fundamental form of human interaction. Motivational theories were as well found several times (6 papers), with different sub-theories, such every bit goal-setting theory, motivational linguistic communication theory and intrinsic motivation theory, emphasizing various factors that can foster personal or followers' motivation. The nigh important among these motivational theories came out to be the self-determination theory'due south (SDT) basic psychological needs, which consists in an empirically-based theory of human beliefs and personality evolution aimed at identifying the social-contextual aspects that promote or prevent motivation based on the satisfaction of basic psychological needs such every bit competence, relatedness and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2017, pag. 3). The social learning theory (SLT), then evolved in the social cerebral theory (SCT), also emerged to exist fundamental (5 papers), positing that learning occurs inside a social context through the combination of individual experience, social interaction and environmental factors. Finally, the to the lowest degree recurring theory was the social identity theory (2 papers), which is a social psychological theory examining the role of self and identity in grouping and intergroup dynamics (Hogg, 2016).

Co-give-and-take Network Assay (Keywords Assay: VOS Clustering)

A 2nd type of assay, focused on the authors' keywords, was carried out in VOSviewer on the basis of the co-occurrence network. Co-occurrence assay assumes that the commodity keywords chosen by various authors stand for an adequate description of the content or of the relationship that the paper establishes between investigated problems (Strozzi et al., 2017). The aim of the assay was to frame the development of the research trends over time: if many co-occurrences can be identified effectually a term, this is likely to correspond a specific research pattern of the discipline. An occurrence threshold of 8 was used, with the goal of ensuring clusters' consistency in terms of content and dimension. A set of the 17 most relevant keywords divided into 3 different clusters was obtained, as shown in Fig.four.

Co-occurrence writer keywords network (size = total link force, color = cluster)

The network's nodes correspond to the keywords of the 357 papers' authors and their link weights to how many times the words announced in the papers. Three colors (ruby, blue and green) differentiate the keywords belonging to one cluster from other clusters' keywords, while the dimension of the node stands for the full link strength.

In the following section, the keywords clusters are examined in gild to address the most relevant inquiry patterns in the literature. Hence, the topics beneath have been discussed on the basis of the output of a quantitative analysis, aimed at addressing the nearly used keywords in the literature and identifying research trajectories within each cluster.

Cluster 1: Retainer Leadership, Leadership, Transformational Leadership, Leadership Evolution, Scale Development, Trust

Retainer leadership is one of the most recently investigated and adopted approaches belonging to the branch of moral leadership theories. As such, it has been studied in parallel with other similar leadership styles, such as transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is a positive form of leadership adult by Burns in 1978 as an ongoing process where "leaders and followers enhance one another to higher levels of morality and motivation beyond cocky-interest to serve collective interests". This concept was then expanded by Bass (1985) and practical to organizations as a guideline for leaders to make followers perform beyond expectations. From a theoretical standpoint, a significant overlap between retainer leadership and transformational leadership has been assessed by scholars, peculiarly in terms of vision, influence, brownie, trust and service shown past leaders, to the point that servant leadership has frequently been considered every bit a class of transformational leadership (Farling et al., 1999). Trust, in particular, has been addressed in both leadership styles as central to relationship: an of import gene in the interdependence existing betwixt leaders and followers, consisting in four distinct dimensions: competence, openness, concern and reliability. Still, an effort has been made to ascertain the major variables involved in the servant-leader follower transformational model. On the other hand, research has tried to identify and address the main differences, or better nuances, between the two leadership approaches: while servant leadership focuses more than on supporting and developing individuals within an institution, transformational leadership emphasizes the role of leaders in inspiring followers to work towards a common goal (Allen et al., 2016).

In 2010s, another stream of literature has focused on the development of a reliable and multidimensional scale to measure out various aspects of servant leadership. Examples include the half dozen-item Retainer Leadership Behavior scale (Sendjaya et al., 2019) to measure out servant leadership behaviors in a leader, or the Executive Servant Leadership Scale (Reed et al., 2011) to measure executive servant leadership across dissimilar organizational contexts.

Cluster two: Chore Satisfaction, Organizational Delivery, Public Sector, Prc

Several empirical studies have analyzed the relationship betwixt servant leadership and different organizational outcomes, both at the individual and collective level, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Moreover, different mediating and moderating mechanisms as well as diverse antecedents of this type of relationship accept been investigated. For instance, Kauppila et al. (2018) demonstrated that Hour manager servant leadership positively influences organizational employees' overall justice perception, which in plough enhances organizational delivery and job satisfaction. Moreover, they found that high leadership self-efficacy fosters a line manager's effectiveness to emulate servant leadership behaviors from 60 minutes managers and utilise these behaviors to accelerate positive justice perceptions amidst their followers.

Since the general concept of leadership and the specific concept of servant leadership were developed in the US and in western societies, a consequent research stream has examined the generalizability of servant leadership constructs in completely different cultural contexts, such as Prc. U.s.a. gild is indeed highly individualistic, short-term oriented and characterized past depression-power distance, meaning that relationships are expected to be participatory, democratic and consultative, while Chinese club is permeated past a collectivist culture, long-term goals and high-ability distance, therefore based on the expectation that power is distributed unequally. Also, well-nigh of these studies were conducted in the public sector, where servant leadership has proven to be very effective in fostering many positive organizational outcomes. Liu et al. (2015) partially confirmed the generalizability of servant leadership constructs from Western society to China and likewise establish a positive relationship between supervisors' servant leadership and the public service motivation.

Cluster 3: Organizational Civilization, Humans, Human, Adult, Male, Female person, Article

Organizations across different fields and geographical contexts demand to understand the office of a leadership that is responsive to a "service mission" in driving the company'south development and success. Effective servant leadership practices are "humane oriented"; they are implemented when managers or leaders invest in human being resources to create a social commutation relationship with employees that makes them feel valued and repay the arrangement through positive outcomes (Karatepe et al., 2019). Equally a consequence, employees' commitment and creativity are stimulated and organizational citizenship and prosocial behaviors are fostered, leading to an increase in organizational performance. For example, Zhou and Miao (2014) found that servant leadership positively influences employees' commitment through perceived organizational support every bit a mediator.

In this framework, civilization, and especially organizational culture, is strictly connected to the leadership style adopted inside a company. On the one manus, servant leadership is more likely to apply in contexts characterized by specific cultural values such as paternalism, collectivism and low-power distance. On the other hand, servant leadership can be adopted to create a new organizational culture based on trust, fairness and loftier-quality leader–follower relationships (Lee et al., 2019).

Leadership attitudes also vary according to gender, as some studies reported that, relative to their counterparts, leading females are more likely to display behaviors of donating calling, emotional healing and organizational stewardship (Beck, 2014) and to hold service and altruistic value (De Rubio & Kiser, 2015); therefore, they more than often behave every bit retainer leaders.

Keywords Temporal Assay

From a temporal standpoint, VOSviewer offers a graphic representation that allows us to identify the nigh recent keywords and therefore the core topics currently discussed in literature.

Effigy5, overlay visualization, displays the ultimate research trends by coloring them in yellow, in contrast with the oldest, colored in blue. Information technology is possible to infer that the concept of servant leadership has been recently discussed in relation to some important outcomes, such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction, to which it is linked past evidence. The effectiveness of this leadership style represented in several organizational contexts has encouraged the development of specific leadership practices, such every bit training or interventions, aimed at fostering the servant leadership behaviors. At nowadays, most empirical studies have focused on the public sector, every bit it is ofttimes characterized by front-line employees who imitate servant leaders' behaviors displayed by their managers, thus promoting the quality of relationships with end-customers and providing significant benefits to the whole organization. In this framework, the influence of organizational culture is all the same relevant, as information technology determines the fashion servant leadership is built by leaders and perceived past followers, along with its effectiveness in achieving the desired outcomes. In fact, according to the cultural climate, servant leadership may chronicle to both individual and organizational outcomes through dissimilar mediating and moderating mechanisms.

Global Analysis: Bones Statistics

In the "analyze search results" section of Scopus, it is possible to gain some general insights into the whole subset of 357 papers used for the purpose of this literature review.

Figure6 shows how the topic of servant leadership dates back to the mid 1980s simply started receiving significant attending only with the outset of the new millennium. Especially, information technology experienced exponential growth from 2007 to 2019. This corresponds to the period when the beginning scales for the measurement of servant leadership were adult allowing the conduction of several empirical studies across various organizational contexts.

From a geographical standpoint, it is possible to detect in Fig.vii how the tendency has interested primarily the Usa (40.viii%), where theories of servant leadership first originated, and China in the 2nd place (13.8%), where the western construct of retainer leadership was tested to appraise its reliability and validity beyond cultures. Several cultural differences have indeed been assessed between the United States and the Chinese culture; for example, China is a long-term and collectivist land committed to work loyalty and respect, while the United States are more individualistic and oriented to curt-term business relationships. The topic has and so spread in most Anglo-Saxon countries, such as Australia (7.7%), United Kingdom (7.4%), S Africa (v.8%) and Canada (iv.5%), probably fostered by their use of a common language and their cultural and historical ties. The countries of Netherlands, Hong Kong, Spain and Turkey represent birthday the remaining 19.ix%.

Documents past state or territory

Retainer leadership is a versatile and multidisciplinary topic, equally it tin can be applied to a variety of contexts that also fall outside that of the typical corporation. Figure8 shows how, besides Business organisation, Management and Bookkeeping (38.seven%), the subject areas of Social Sciences (25.3%) Psychology (11.ane%) and Arts and Humanities (7.9%) are also significantly involved in the literature. This tin can be explained by the fact that, rather than organizations, at the core of servant leadership are humans: specifically, leaders and their followers.

Documents by subject surface area

Figureix shows the contribution of the nigh impactful journals over fourth dimension. The Leadership and Organisation Development Journal with 22 articles out of 63, is the leading in the field and has grown exponentially from 2015. The journal of Business Ethics, with its xv manufactures, has also been very influential for contributions to servant leadership inquiry in the final decade. Other articles focusing on retainer leadership accept been published in Leadership Quarterly (10), International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management (viii), and Leadership Organization Evolution Periodical (8), which are also the longest-running in time.

Documents per yr past source

With regards to the scholars who significantly contributed to the bookish inquiry on retainer leadership (Fig.x), some are based in the United States, where leadership theories have originated and are still widely investigated; the remaining function are based in Europe and Commonwealth of australia but have worked for important American journals and communities, such every bit Greenleaf heart for servant leadership. The most important contribution comes from van Dierendonck (2014, 2019), who has an expertise in leadership and leadership development at Erasmus Academy (Rotterdam, Holland) and is the associate editor of the International Journal of Servant Leadership, published by Gonzaga University (Washington, U.s.a.) in collaboration with the Spears Center for Retainer-Leadership. Two other influential authors are Liden et al. (2008, 2014, 2015) and Sendjaya et al. (2008, 2019), who take been writing for some of the most important journals in the field, such equally Leadership quarterly, Journal of business ethics and Leadership and organizational development periodical, which were also highlighted past the previous analysis (Fig.ix). The remaining scholars, Winston and Fields (2015), Eva (2019), Ruiz-Palomino (2018), Bande (2015), Barbuto and Wheeler (2006), Cooper (2014) and Jaramillo (2009, 2015), accept to be mentioned as they also provided considerable contribution to research, as proved past the number of citations of their works.

Figure11 shows the output of an assay performed in order to identify contempo breakthrough papers that have provided a significant contribution to the topic and accept received considerable attending from the scientific customs. The ten well-nigh cited papers have been identified by extracting all 357 papers from the Scopus database and ranking them according to the overall number of citations of the last 5 years, divided by 5 (average value of citation per year). This reduced time span has been called instead of the time-length of the whole dataset in order to avoid the biased effect of obtaining the oldest papers as the most cited, due to the fact that they would have received a greater number of citations over time. The commodity with the highest number of citations is the i by Liden et al. (2008) who adult and validated a multidimensional measure of 28 items measuring 9 essential dimensions of servant leadership. This scale has been widely applied to test the construct validity in various organizational contexts in recent time, together with its shortened version of 7 particular developed by Wayne et al. in 2015. The remaining virtually cited articles tin be divided in three groups, according to the inquiry streams. Ane stream has focused on the clarification of the construct and the servant leadership theories in organizations, including scale development and validation. A second stream has been investigating the mediating and moderating mechanisms through which servant leadership leads to a serial of behavioral, attitudinal and performance outcomes, both at the individual and commonage level. Finally, a 3rd stream has compared servant leadership to other moral-based leadership styles, such as transformational, ethical and authentic leaderships in terms of focus and their associations with a wide range of organizationally relevant measures. All the most cited papers are part of the biggest component shown in Fig.ii; moreover, four out of the ten papers are included in the main path, while the remaining six are not. Being written by more than than ane authors, these impactful papers are the result of a significant investigation conducted on the topic by more scholars. Birthday, the articles suggest that the near consequent tendency in literature is moving towards the measurement of servant leadership beyond various cultural and organizational contexts, at both the individual and collective levels (organization, employee, customer, etc.). This has been possible through the clarification of the common constructs composing servant leadership and the development of a calibration able to test them across different organizations and organizational levels.

Ranking of the ten most cited papers in the terminal 5 years (mean value of citation per twelvemonth)

Discussion

This paper represents an effort to rationalize the content of research adult in the context of servant leadership. The limitations of the written report are mainly related to the adopted methodology. First of all, it consists in a literature review based on a commendation network analysis, which may not be fully representative of a newspaper's qualitative contribution to the body of knowledge, especially because VOSviewer shows only a part of the whole subset. Moreover, citations could be biased because scholars frequently tend to cite the nigh relevant manufactures in the literature, driven by their reputation and popularity. Withal, these limitations tin can be overcome due to the fact that the purpose of the current study is to depict an evolutionary path of the topic, rather than investigate in-depth the contribution of single papers.

The growing body of empirical studies on servant leadership, analyzed for the purpose of the assay, has immune to place some consolidated streams of research and some areas of the literature deserving farther investigation. First of all, there is prove that servant leadership can foster employees' positive outcomes, with unlike antecedents and through various mediating and moderating mechanisms. These outcomes have been found at the individual, team and organizational level and are of various types: behavioral, such as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and proactive behavior (Chiniara & Bentein, 2016; Newman et al., 2017; Ozyilmaz & Cicek, 2015; Walumbwa et al., 2010) attitudinal, such as engagement and job satisfaction (Chiniara & Bentein, 2016; Hunter et al., 2013; Kauppila et al., 2018; Van Dierendonck et al., 2014) and operation, such as customer value co-creation and team performance (Hsiao et al., 2015; Hu & Liden, 2011). Moreover, retainer leadership has been establish to be of significant utility in explaining incremental variance to a higher place and beyond transformational, ethical and accurate leadership, with regards to these organizationally relevant criterion measures (Hoch et al., 2018). For this reason, scholars have addressed their attention to this leadership approach and several companies are moving towards the adoption of an organizational climate based on service, ethics and salubrious piece of work relationships that could significantly contribute to the organizational success (Eva et al., 2019). This aspect makes retainer leadership attractive for both future research and usage. As well, in the analyses of the present study (principal path, keywords clusters, global statistics), no meaning criticism of servant leadership, from both an empirical and theoretical level, has emerged; the development of small-scale critical examinations has e'er started from a prior enhancement of the construct and its positive outcomes. Information technology has to be considered, still, that the unquestioned positive praise of servant leadership may be due to the so called "Matthew effect": the fact that those papers offering a promising perspective of servant leadership, which have previously been successful, are more likely to be cited over again and once again (Bol et al., 2018).

Although a positive interpretation of servant leadership prevails in the literature, the authors of the present study went beyond the outputs of the main analyses to identify in the literature some potential drawbacks associated with the adoption of this practice within organizations (Palumbo, 2015). First of all, it has to exist considered that the servant leadership approach takes fourth dimension to build, as information technology requires strong interpersonal relationships engaging the emotional, relational and ethical dimension of followers, in which both the leader and the followers play a vital office in maintaining them over time. Plus, the retainer leadership style may not be suitable for all organizations, especially those characterized by a fast-changing environment where decisions have to be fabricated quickly, due to the fact that they would crave a fast elevation-downwardly arroyo, rather than bottom-up. Another risk is losing sight of the purpose of the organisation and ultimate goals in favour of people development: the servant leader is in fact devoted to the private employee and their growth rather than to the organization. This could have negative furnishings on the organizational effectiveness. On the other paw, a successful visitor performance is not e'er due to a visionary leader who establishes a climate of service, every bit this represents a mutual misperception of the business organization world: the halo event (i.e. the trend to make specific inferences on the basis of a general impression).

Lastly, too much healing and empathy shown by the leader may turn into merely protective behaviour towards followers, which would discourage them from adopting a proactive part and promptly dealing with critical issues within the system. This would challenge the prevailing arguments of the literature of retainer leadership by producing a disabling surround that disempowers employees and leads to a situation of dependency on the leader (Palumbo, 2015). To prevent this possible counterintuitive outcome, retainer leaders should act as role models and lead by example, ensuring at the aforementioned time that followers have the right degree of autonomy and responsibility. In light of these considerations, the conceptualization of retainer leadership should exist revisited to contemplate its side-furnishings, in terms of followers' behaviour, leader–follower relationships and organizational outcomes, to prevent the impoverishment of the overall organizational effectiveness predicted by some studies (Andersen, 2009; Palumbo, 2015; Liu, 2019; Chenwei et al., 2021, Wu et al., 2021).

In item, the authors of the present study have leveraged on a critical assessment of the outputs of the main analyses of the literature on servant leadership to place some inquiry areas that have not been examined in detail and deserve farther investigation:

• servant leaders' system of beliefs and values (i.e. ethics) equally well as other antecedents, that may significantly touch followers' and organizational performance;

• other mediating or moderating mechanisms (i.east. contextual discriminants) influencing the relationship betwixt retainer leadership and positive outcomes, both at the private and organizational level;

• retainer leadership behaviours displayed by followers, that are useful to promote customers' satisfaction, especially in the service sector;

• the utility of servant leadership in contexts where it has not nonetheless been evaluated, such as technology, to exam its validity across industries;

• longitudinal, multi-level studies confirming the effectiveness and generalizability of the most contempo scale of global retainer leadership cess (SL-vii) across culturally various countries (other than the Usa and China, every bit suggested by this literature review), according to well-known frameworks such as Hofstede'southward

• critical theoretical and empirical investigation of the potential shortcomings of servant leadership ofttimes neglected by scholars, to challenge the current positive interpretation of the topic and advance the scientific knowledge

Additionally, on the basis of the authors' considerations, the part of servant leadership, compared to other types of leadership, may be investigated within the institutional framework (e.g. public services and administration, where it has shown to be very effective) and companies' organizational change direction.

Conclusions and Managerial Implications

Due to its holistic approach, wide focus and important role in affecting both private and squad-level outcomes, servant leadership has seen a proliferation of studies in the last twenty years. In response to this research tendency, the aim of this paper was threefold. First of all, the contempo evolution of the field was depicted through the identification of the master articles cluster that has been cited the virtually, thus representing the consolidated literature. 2d, the development of the research trends over time was framed on the basis of the co-occurrence of authors' keywords. Third, by conducting analyses on the primary subset of papers, the authors presented some general insights on the topic, such equally its temporal and geographical development, the main contexts where information technology has been studied and practical, the virtually cited papers providing a significant contribution to the field and the most influential journals and authors. The results of the analyses conducted in the present report indicate that the interpretation of servant leadership prevailing in literature is positive, due to the promising attitudinal, behavioural and performance outcomes that it can produce on followers.

Even so, scholars should examine the potential drawbacks of servant leadership, appraise its validity beyond industries, too as identify the all-time scenario where it tin can be implemented. From a practical standpoint, managers should consider the importance of promoting servant leadership in employment settings, to develop specific skills and ultimately amend an organizational climate of empowerment. The servant leadership arroyo may exist particularly constructive in the post covid-xix scenario and / or in contexts characterized past a loftier caste of volatility, uncertainty, complication and ambiguity (VUCA). In these environments, leaders struggle to make all decisions, thus requiring the proactiveness and motivational orientation of all employees, which have been identified as of import mediators to positive followers' outcomes in the servant leadership inquiry (Eva et al., 2019). Specifically, further considerations are needed in relation to the potential role of this leadership exercise in empowering and supporting followers, as well as in giving them the right caste of autonomy and responsibleness to take on new challenges and act on behalf of the company when pressured by the external environment.

Information Availability

We ensure data transparency.

Code Availability

Non applicative.

Declarations

Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests

We accept no conflict of interest or competing involvement to disclose.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Alice Canavesi, Email: ti.cuil@isevanaca.

Eliana Minelli, Electronic mail: ti.cuil@illenime.

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